How to prevent pimples

Zits, spots, pimples... call them what you will, they are an unfortunate skin problem that most people have to deal with at some point in their lives. Luckily, there are many, many options when it comes to getting those pesky pimples under control, from rigorous skin care regimens, to medications and creams, to innovative home remedies. Finding what works for you may be a process of trial and error, but not to worry -- this article contains a solution for everybody!

Method 1 of 3: Caring For Your Skin

1. 
   1
   Wash your face twice a day. It is very important to keep your face clean when trying to prevent pimples. Washing your face removes dirt, impurities and any excess oil that has built up on the surface of your skin. Ideally, you should wash your face twice a day, in the morning and noon and in the evening, using warm water and a mild facial cleanser. Use a clean dry towel to pat your face dry.
   • Avoid scrubbing your face with a rough wash cloth, sponge or loofah. This will only irritate the skin and cause pimples to become even more inflamed. Wash cloths may also harbor bacteria, which you want to avoid putting in contact with your face.
   • Even though you may be tempted to wash your face more than twice a day if you're suffering from pimples, be aware that this will not necessarily help your skin. Washing your face too often can dry out the skin and cause it to become irritated.
2. 
   2
   Use a noncomedogenic moisturizer. After washing it is important to apply a good moisturizer to hydrate the skin and prevent it from become dry and irritated. However, if you suffer from pimples it is important that you use the right type of moisturizer for your skin type. Heavy, oily moisturizers can clog your pores and lead to further breakouts. Look for moisturizers which say "noncomedogenic" on the label -- this means that they should not cause your skin to breakout.
   • In addition to looking out for noncomedogenic moisturizers, you should be careful to choose a product that suits your skin type. For example, if you have very oily skin you may want to use a lighter, gel-based moisturizer, whereas if you you have dry, flaky skin, you may need a heavier, cream-based one.
   • Make sure you wash your hands immediately before applying moisturizer. Otherwise, any bacteria or germs on your hands may be transferred to your face when your apply your moisturizer.
3. 
   3
   Avoid touching your face or popping pimples. Hands come into contact with more dirt and bacteria throughout the day than any other part of the body, which is why you should avoid touching your face at all costs. In addition to spreading bacteria and risking infection, touching spots and pimples can cause them to become irritated and inflamed, thus worsening their appearance and prolonging healing time.
   • Popping pimples, however satisfying it may feel, is one of the worst things you can do for your skin. Popping pimples will only prolong their healing time and may even lead to infection and scarring. Acne scars can be very difficult to get rid of, so you will want to avoid this as far as possible.
   • It is very easy to touch your face without being aware of what you are doing. Be wary of propping your cheek or chin up with your hand when sitting at a desk or table, or of resting your face on your hand in bed at night.
4. 
   4
   Use exfoliating treatments and face masks once a week. Skin exfoliators and face masks are great products which can be very beneficial for the skin, but they should only be used sparingly. Exfoliators remove dead skin cells while effectively cleansing the skin, but can be dry out and irritate the skin if used to often, especially on pimple-prone skin.
   • Face masks are great for cleansing impurities and calming the skin, and can turn your regular skin care routine into a spa-like experience. Yet again, they should be limited to about once a week, as they may contain harsher ingredients that are not intended for everyday use.
5. 
   5
   Avoid overloading your skin with products. Too many creams, lotions and gels can clog your pores and lead to breakouts, so make sure to apply any facial products sparingly, and no more frequently than is indicated on the packaging. The same goes for make-up, which should be applied as lightly as possible and should be thoroughly removed using a facial cleanser at the end of each day.
   • Heavily fragranced or chemical-laden hair products may also clog the pores if hair comes in contact with the face, so avoid using these whenever possible. Use a gentle shampoo and conditioner which won't irritate your skin in the shower.
   • You should also limit your skin's exposure to built-up oils and bacteria by changing your pillowcase at least once a week and by washing any make-up brushes frequently.
6. 
   6
   Protect your skin from the sun. Although traditional advice encouraged the exposure of pimple-prone skin to the sun, with the belief that this would dry pimples out, modern-day skin specialists say otherwise. The sun's UV rays can actually cause pimples to become even more red and inflamed than before.
   • For this reason, it is important to protect your skin from sunlight by wearing a protective hat and applying a sunscreen with an SPF of 30 or higher.
   • Be aware that some sunscreens can be oily and may clog the pores, so look for products that state "noncomedogenic" on the label.
7. 
   7
   Eat well. Although it's been proven that chocolate and other junk food don't actually cause pimples, staying away from oily, greasy foods can still have a positive effect for your skin. Pimples form when excess oil clogs up your pores, so limiting the amount of oil that you put into your body in the first place is a step in the right direction. Plus, if your body is healthy on the inside, that will be reflected on the outside.
   • Stay away from foods like potato chips, chocolate, pizza and fries. These foods are high in fat, sugar and starch, which is not good news for your skin or your overall health. You don't need to deprive yourself completely, just try to limit your intake a little.
   • Eat plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables. Their water content helps to hydrate the skin while their vitamins and minerals give your body the ammunition it needs to fight pimples. In particular, try to eat fruit and veg with a high vitamin A content (such as broccoli, spinach and carrots) as this helps to flush acne-causing proteins from the system, and with high vitamin E and C contents (oranges, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, avocados) which have antioxidant effects and help to calm the skin.^[1]
8. 
   8
   Drink plenty of water. Drinking water has many benefits, for the skin and for the body's overall health. It keeps the body hydrated, helping skin to look firm and plump. It flushes harmful toxins from the system, preventing them from building up and causing skin problems. In addition, water helps ensure the proper function of the skin's metabolism and allows it to regenerate itself. You should aim to drink 5 to 8 glasses of water a day to reap the benefits.
   • There is such a thing as drinking too much water, however, so don't feel like you have to be drinking constantly. Too much water dilutes the blood and can put your health at risk, leading to seizures in extreme cases. Stick around the 8 glass mark, and you'll be fine.^[2]
   • You should also try to stay away from excessive alcohol consumption. Alcohol upsets your hormone balance, and an imbalance of hormones such as testosterone and oestrogen is one of the major causes of acne. In addition, alcohol causes damage to the liver, which is the main organ responsible for healthy skin, as it regulates hormones and blood sugar levels, and filters toxins.^[3]

Method 2 of 3: Using Creams, Medications and Treatments

1. 
   1
   Use an over-the-counter cream. If you suffer from persistent pimples, it will usually be necessary to do a little more than simply keep your face clean and eat healthily. Luckily, there are a whole plethora of over-the-counter (OTC) creams which can work wonders for clearing up pimples and prevent more from popping up in their place. These creams are usually applied directly onto pimples and will, in most cases, lead to a significant improvement in the skin's condition within 6 to 8 weeks. The most common active ingredients found in these creams are:
   • Benzoyl peroxide. Benzoyl peroxide kills bacteria on the surface of the skin, while also slowing down the production and build-up of oil in the pores. It also works as a peeling agent, helping the skin to rejuvenate itself. Benzoyl peroxide can have a drying, irritating effect on the skin, so you should begin with the lowest available concentration.
   • Salicylic acid. Salicylic acid is another ingredient which helps to kill pimple-causing bacteria. It also helps to break down blackheads and whiteheads which can develop into pimples once infected. In addition, salicylic acid helps skin to shed old, dead layers, preventing pores from becoming blocked and allowing new skin cells to form.
   • Sulfur. Sulfur contains anti-bacterial properties and helps to break down whiteheads and blackheads, preventing them from becoming infected and forming pimples.
   • Retin-A. Retin-A contains an acidic form of vitamin A, known as all-trans retinoic acid, which operates like a chemical peels, exfoliating the skin and unblocking clogged pores.
   • Azelaic acid. Azelaic acid minimizes the appearance of pimples by preventing the build-up of oil and reducing inflammation and bacterial growth. It is especially effective for people with darker skin tones.^[4]
2. 
   2
   Ask a dermatologist to prescribe a stronger topical cream. Some people find that OTC creams are not quite strong enough to combat stubborn pimples. In this case, it is possible to ask your doctor to prescribe a stronger topical treatment which might just do the trick.
   • Most prescription creams contain active ingredients derived from vitamin A. Examples include products such as tretinoin, adapalene and tazarotene. These creams work by encouraging cell turnover and by preventing hair follicles from becoming clogged.^[5]
   • There are also a number of prescription antibacterial creams, which work by killing bacteria on the surface of the skin.
3. 
   3
   Think about taking a course of antibiotics. In cases of moderate to severe acne, your doctor may recommend combining the application of a topical cream with a course of oral antibiotics. These help to reduce inflammation along with the growth of bacteria. Antibiotic treatments will usually last between four to six months, although you should begin to notice an improvement in your skin within about six weeks.
   • Unfortunately, many people nowadays easily build up a resistance to antibiotics, so this form of treatment will not always work effectively.
   • Some antibiotics (such as tetracyclines) will reduce the effectiveness of oral contraceptives, so women should use a back up form of contraception when following a course of antibiotics.^[4]
4. 
   4
   In case of severe acne, consider isotretinoin treatments. If all else fails and severe acne persists, your dermatologist may advise isotretinoin treatments. Isotretinoin is closely related to vitamin A and works by reducing the body's production of sebum oil and by shrinking the oil production glands. A course of isotretinoin usually lasts for about 20 weeks, during which time the patient must be closely monitored, due to the drug's large number of potential side effects.
   • When taking isotretinoin, acne may become worse before it gets better. This flare-up will usually only last for a couple of weeks but can sometimes last for the duration of the treatment.
   • Some of side effects associated with isotretinoin treatments include dry skin and eyes, dry, cracked lips, sensitivity to sunlight, and more uncommonly, headaches, hair loss, mood changes and depression.
   • This treatment has been linked with severe birth defects, so it cannot be prescribed to pregnant women or those who are trying to conceive. As a result, women will be asked to take a pregnancy test before being prescribed this medication.^[6]
5. 
   5
   If you are female, think about using oral contraceptives. Since many pimple problems are related to hormonal imbalances, oral contraceptives can be a great way of regulating hormone production and reducing breakouts in women - particularly those related to the menstrual cycle. Oral contraceptives which contain a combination of norgestimate and ethinyl estradiol are generally the most effective.
   • Oral contraceptives can in rare cases produce serious side effects such as blood clotting, high blood pressure and a higher risk of heart disease, so make sure to discuss this option thoroughly with your doctor before pursuing it.^[5]
6. 
   6
   Find out about professional treatments. There are many treatments available at spas and skin clinics, which can significantly improve the appearance of pimple prone skin, when used in combination with some of the above-mentioned treatments. They can be a little on the pricey side, but can produce more long term results than other treatments and even help to prevent and reduce scarring. Such treatments include:
   • Laser therapy. Laser therapy works by penetrating deep within the skin and damaging the oil glands that produce sebum - an excess of which leads to pimples.
   • Light therapy. Light therapy targets the acne-causing bacteria on the surface of the skin, reducing inflammation and improving the texture of the skin.
   • Chemical peels. A chemical peel burns the surface of the skin in a controlled fashion, causing the top layers to peel away and revealing the fresh, new skin underneath. This treatment is particularly good for getting rid of any marks or scars left behind after the pimples themselves have been cleared away.
   • Microdermabrasion. Microdermabrasion uses a rotating wire brush to exfoliate the top layers of skin, revealing the smooth new skin underneath. It can be somewhat uncomfortable and can leave the skin looking red and raw for a number of days until it has fully healed.^[5]

Method 3 of 3: Using Home Remedies

Herbal remedies

1. 
   1
   Use tea tree oil. Tea tree oil is one of the best natural spot treatments available. Extracted from the leaves of the Australian melaleuca alternifolia plant, tea tree oil possesses powerful antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties which effectively combat the pimple-causing bacteria on the skin. Simply apply a drop or two of pure tea tree oil onto a clean q-tip and dab directly onto the offending pimple. Do this twice and day and the pimple should be gone in no time!
   • Tea tree oil is an essential oil and therefore extremely concentrated. If you overuse the oil or apply it undiluted to unaffected skin, your skin may become dry and irritated, so use sparingly, and only when needed.
   • One study found that tee tree oil was just as effective at combating pimples as its chemical-laden counterpart benzoyl peroxide. The tea tree oil did take slightly longer to take effect, but also produced fewer negative side effects.^[7]
2. 
   2
   Apply honey. Honey is an amazing natural healing product, whose antibacterial, antiseptic and hydrating properties make it an excellent choice for fighting pimples, particularly if you have sensitive skin. Manuka honey is the best bet for calming angry pimples, but raw honey will also work well.
   • You can apply the honey as a spot treatment, or use it as a face mask, applying it all over the face on clean, slightly damp skin. As honey is non-irritating, you can leave it on for as long as you like.
   • One point that must be made is that honey, like many other home remedies, works to clear up pre-existing pimples (due to its anti-bacterial nature) but will do little to prevent future pimples from popping up (especially those caused by hormonal imbalances).^[8]
3. 
   3
   Try lavender essential oil. Lavender essential oil, famous mainly for its calming and soothing properties, can also be used as a spot treatment for pimples, much like tea tree oil. Lavender oil is often used on burns, as it contains healing properties which can also be beneficial for pimples. In addition, lavender oil contains powerful antibacterial agents, which help to cleanse pores, minimizing the appearance of pimples.
   • To use, apply a dab of undiluted oil directly onto the pimple using a q-tip. Take care not to get any on the surrounding skin, as lavender oil can be irritating on the skin when undiluted. ^[9]
4. 4
   Use aloe vera. Take a big piece of aloe vera. Rub it on the pimpled place. Massage on the skin with the aloe vera on the pimple zone. Leave it for half an hour. Wash it off with hot water.

Cold remedies

1. 
   1
   Try an ice cube. Pimples often make their presence felt by becoming red and inflamed, so what better way to cool off an angry pimple than with some soothing ice? The ice reduces inflammation and redness, significantly improving the appearance of the pimple. Simply wrap an ice cub in some paper towel or a clean cloth and press gently against the pimple for a minute or two.^[10]
   • An additional tip is to make ice cubes from strong green tea and use these on the pimples instead. In addition to its anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties, studies have shown that a certain antioxidant green tea can actually help to reduce sebum production.^[11]

Bathroom remedies

1. 
   1
   Use toothpaste. The notion of applying toothpaste on problem pimples has been around for years, and while it may not be the most effective spot treatment available, it will do in a pinch. Toothpaste contains ingredients such as baking soda and hydrogen peroxide which dry out pimples, helping them to go away faster.
   • Opt for an all-white, fluoride-free toothpaste, if possible, and make sure that you apply it directly onto the pimple, rather than on the surrounding skin, as other ingredients in the toothpaste may irritate and even burn the skin.^[12]
2. 
   2
   Apply a crushed up aspirin. The technical name for aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid, which is closely related to salicylic acid, a well-known and popular acne treatment. Aspirin is an anti-inflammatory which can help to reduce the size and redness of pimples, when applied topically. All you need to do is crush up an aspirin tablet and add a drop or two of water to form a paste, which can then be applied directly onto each pimple.
   • Alternatively, you can make a face mask by crushing up five or six aspirin tabs and adding enough water to make a paste. This can be applied all over the face and left on for about ten to fifteen minutes, before washing off.^[13]

Kitchen remedies

1. 
   1
   Use tomato. Tomatoes are a handy home remedy for pimples, as most people tend to have a tomato or two floating around their kitchen. Tomatoes are packed with vitamins A and C which, as mentioned above, are prime pimple-busting material. Tomato juice is also a natural astringent, which causes the surface of the pimple to contract and shrink.
   • To use, simply cut up a fresh tomato and rub the juice from a slice directly onto the target pimple. Do this twice a day and you should begin to notice an improvement.
2. 
   2
   Apply fresh lemon juice. Applying fresh lemon juice to pimples is one of most popular home remedies out there. Lemons contain high quantities of vitamin C, along with citric acid which helps to both exfoliate and dry out pimples. Lemon juice also contains bleaching agents which can significantly reduce the redness of the pimples. A little fresh lemon juice can be applied directly to each pimple before bed and left on overnight.
   • Lemon juice should not be applied to your skin during the day, unless you plan on staying indoors. This is because the juice makes your skin photosensitive, increasing the risk of sun damage.^[14]
   • As with many other home remedies, the lemon juice should only be applied directly on to the pimple, and not on the surrounding skin. This is due to the chance of the citric acid in lemons burning the skin.

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• Remember to have patience. It may take several weeks or months to notice an improvement in your skin after beginning any new treatments or skincare regimes. However, if several months have passed and there is still no improvement, you may want to explore alternative options.

Warnings

• Discontinue use of any medications that irritate your skin. That's it and enjoy your pimple free skin.
• Most home remedies are not backed up by modern science and will not work for everybody. When it comes to natural treatments, it may be a process of trial and error to find out what works for you.

Hygiene

Hygiene (which comes from the name of the Greek goddess of health, Hygieia), is a set of practices performed for the preservation of health. Whereas in popular culture and parlance it can often mean mere 'cleanliness', hygiene in its fullest and original meaning goes much beyond that to include all circumstances and practices, lifestyle issues, premises and commodities that engender a safe and healthy environment. While in modern medical sciences there is a set of standards of hygiene recommended for different situations, what is considered hygienic or not can vary between different cultures, genders and etarian groups. Some regular hygienic practices may be considered good habits by a society while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful or even threatening.

Sanitation in its current US popular meaning is often (incorrectly) taken to be merely the hygienic disposal and treatment by the civic authority of potentially unhealthy human waste, such as household garbage and sewage, and the maintenance of the sewerage and drainage infrastructure. In the UK the term 'sanitation' has unfortunately come closer to meaning water and waste plumbing and disposal, and it is not used to include garbage collection and disposal. The full and proper meaning of 'sanitation' is closer to the full meaning of 'hygiene' and includes the control of water and air quality; vectors; healthful housing; safe products; safe food and working conditions. The more recent broad term 'environmental health' equates to the original meaning of sanitation.

Etymology

First attested in English in 1677s, the word hygiene comes from the French hygiene, the latinisation of the Greek ὑγιεινή (τέχνη) hugieinē technē, meaning "(art) of health", from ὑγιεινός hugieinos, "good for the health, healthy",^[1] in turn from ὑγιής (hugiēs), "healthful, sound, salutary, wholesome".^[2] In ancient Greek religion, Hygeia (Ὑγίεια) was the personification of health.^[

Concept of hygiene

Hygiene is an old concept related to medicine, as well as to personal and professional care practices related to most aspects of living. In medicine and in home (domestic) and everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence and spreading of disease. In the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and other products, good hygiene is a key part of quality assurance i.e. ensuring that the product complies with microbial specifications appropriate to its use. The terms cleanliness (or cleaning) and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Since cleaning processes (e.g., hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including: body hygiene, personal hygiene, sleep hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, and occupational hygiene, used in connection with public health. Hygiene is also the name of a branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health, also called hygienic. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is considered acceptable in one culture might not be acceptable in another.

Medical hygiene

Medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices related to the administration of medicine, and medical care, that prevents or minimizes disease and the spreading of disease.

Medical hygiene practices include:

·                    Isolation or quarantine of infectious persons or materials to prevent spread of infection.

·                    Sterilization of instruments used in surgical procedures.

·                    Use of protective clothing and barriers, such      as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and gloves.

·                    Proper bandaging and dressing of injuries.

·                    Safe disposal of medical waste.

·                    Disinfection of reusables (i.e. linen, pads, uniforms)

·                    Scrubbing up, hand-washing, especially in an operating room, but in more general health-care settings as well, where diseases can be transmitted^[4]

Most of these practices were developed in the 19th century and were well established by the mid-20th century. Some procedures (such as disposal of medical waste) were refined in response to late-20th century disease outbreaks, notably AIDS and Ebola.

Home and everyday life hygiene

Home hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of disease in home (domestic) and in everyday life settings such as social settings, public transport, the work place, public places etc.

Hygiene in home and everyday life settings plays an important part in preventing spread of infectious diseases.^[5] It includes procedures used in a variety of domestic situations such as hand hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene, general home hygiene (hygiene of environmental sites and surfaces), care of domestic animals, and home healthcare (the care of those who are at greater risk of infection).

At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although all are based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. The simple principle is that, if the chain of infection is broken, infection cannot spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in home and everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk-based approach (based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), which has come to be known as "targeted hygiene". Targeted hygiene is based on identifying the routes of spread of pathogens in the home, and applying hygiene procedures at critical points at appropriate times to break the chain of infection.

The main sources of infection in the home are people (who are carriers or are infected), foods (particularly raw foods) and water, and domestic animals (in western countries more than 50% of homes have one or more pets). Additionally, sites that accumulate stagnant water—such as sinks, toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths—readily support microbial growth, and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are mostly those that threaten "at risk" groups. Germs (potentially infectious bacteria, viruses etc.) are constantly shed from these sources via mucous membranes, faeces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people become exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an infection. The main "highways" for spread of germs^[6] in the home are the hands, hand and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths and utensils. Germs can also spread via clothing and household linens, such as towels. Utilities such as toilets and wash basins, for example, were invented for dealing safely with human waste, but still have risks associated with them, which may become critical at certain times, e.g., when someone has sickness or diarrhea. Safe disposal of human waste is a fundamental need; poor sanitation is a primary cause of diarrhea disease in low income communities. Respiratory viruses and fungal spores are also spread via the air.

Good home hygiene means targeting hygiene procedures at critical points, at appropriate times, to break the chain of infection i.e. to eliminate germs before they can spread further.^[6] Because the "infectious dose" for some pathogens can be very small (10-100 viable units, or even less for some viruses), and infection can result from direct transfer from surfaces via hands or food to the mouth, nasal mucosa or the eye, 'hygienic cleaning' procedures should be sufficient to eliminate pathogens from critical surfaces. Hygienic cleaning can be done by:

·                    Mechanical removal (i.e. cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under running water to remove germs from the surface.

·                    Using a process or product that inactivates the pathogens in situ. Germ kill is achieved using a "micro-biocidal" product i.e. a disinfectant orantibacterial product or waterless hand sanitizer, or by application of heat.

·                    In some cases combined germ removal with kill is used, e.g. laundering of clothing and household linens such as towels and bedlinen.

Some hygiene accessories.

Hand hygiene

Hand hygiene is defined as hand washing or washing hands and nails with soap and water or using awaterless hand sanitizer.

Hand hygiene is central to preventing spread of infectious diseases in home and everyday life settings.^[7]

In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g. when in a public place with no access to wash facilities), a waterless hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can also be used in addition to hand washing, to minimize risks when caring for "at risk" groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol. Hand sanitizers are not an option in most developing countries. In situations with limited water supply, there are water-conserving solutions, such as tippy-taps. (A tippy-tap is a simple technology using a jug suspended by a rope, and a foot-operated lever to pour a small amount of water over the hands and a bar of soap.^[8]) In low-income communities, mud or ash is sometimes used as an alternative to soap.

The World Health Organization recommends hand washing with ash if soap is not available in emergencies,^[9] schools without access to soap ^[10]and other difficult situations like post-emergencies where use of (clean) sand is recommended too.^[11] Use of ash is common and has in experiments been shown at least as effective as soap for removing bacteria.^[12]

Respiratory hygiene

Correct respiratory and hand hygiene when coughing and sneezing reduces the spread of germs particularly during the cold and flu season.^[5]

·                    Carry tissues and use them to catch coughs and sneezes

·                    Dispose of tissues as soon as possible

·                    Clean your hands by hand washing or using an alcohol hand sanitizer.

Food hygiene at home

Food hygiene is concerned with the hygiene practices that prevent food poisoning. The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:^[13]

1.     Prevent contaminating food with mixing chemicals spreading from people, pets, and pests.

2.     Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.

3.     Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.

4.     Store food at the proper temperature.

5.     Use safe water and raw materials

Household water treatment and safe storage

Household water treatment and safe storage ensure drinking water is safe for consumption. Drinking water quality remains a significant problem, not only in developing countries^[14] but also in developed countries;^[15] even in the European region it is estimated that 120 million people do not have access to safe drinking water. Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrheal disease in communities where water quality is poor, or in emergency situations where there is a breakdown in water supply.^{[14][15][16][17]} Since water can become contaminated during storage at home (e.g. by contact with contaminated hands or using dirty storage vessels), safe storage of water in the home is also important.

Methods for treatment of drinking water,^[17][18] include:

1.     Chemical disinfection using chlorine or iodine

2.     Boiling

3.     Filtration using ceramic filters

4.     Solar disinfection - Solar disinfection is an effective method, especially when no chemical disinfectants are available.^[19]

5.     UV irradiation - community or household UV systems may be batch or flow-though. The lamps can be suspended above the water channel or submerged in the water flow.

6.     Combined flocculation/disinfection systems – available as sachets of powder that act by coagulating and flocculating sediments in water followed by release of chlorine.

7.     Multibarrier methods – Some systems use two or more of the above treatments in combination or in succession to optimize efficacy.

Hygiene in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet

Routine cleaning of (hand, food and drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of germs.^[18] The infection risk from the toilet itself is not high, provided it is properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly where someone in the family has diarrhea. Germs can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths and wash basins after washing and bathing.

Water left stagnant in the pipes of showers can be contaminated with germs that become airborne when the shower is turned on. If a shower has not been used for some time, it should be left to run at a hot temperature for a few minutes before use.

Thorough cleaning is important in preventing the spread of fungal infections.^[20] Molds can live on wall and floor tiles and on shower curtains. Mold can be responsible for infections, cause allergic responses, deteriorate/damage surfaces and cause unpleasant odors. Primary sites of fungal growth are inanimate surfaces, including carpets and soft furnishings.^[21] Air-borne fungi are usually associated with damp conditions, poor ventilation or closed air systems.

Cleaning of toilets and hand wash facilities is important to prevent odors and make them socially acceptable. Social acceptance is an important part of encouraging people to use toilets and wash their hands.

Laundry hygiene

Laundry hygiene pertains to the practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of disease via soiled clothing and household linens such as towels.^[22] Items most likely to be contaminated with pathogens are those that come into direct contact with the body, e.g., underwear, personal towels, facecloths, nappies. Cloths or other fabric items used during food preparation, or for cleaning the toilet or cleaning up material such as faeces or vomit are a particular risk.^[23]

Microbiological and epidemiological data indicates that clothing and household linens etc. are a risk factor for infection transmission in home and everyday life settings as well as institutional settings, although the lack of quantitative data directly linking contaminated clothing to infection in the domestic setting makes it difficult to assess the extent of the risk.^[22][23][24] Although microbiological data indicates that risks from clothing and household linens are somewhat less than those associated with hands, hand contact and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths, nevertheless these risks needs to be appropriately managed through effective laundering practices. In the home, this routine should be carried out as part of a multibarrier approach to hygiene which also includes hand, food, respiratory and other hygiene practices.^[22][23][24]

Infection risks from contaminated clothing etc. can increase significantly under certain conditions. e.g. in healthcare situations in hospitals, care homes and the domestic setting where someone has diarrhoea, vomiting, or a skin or wound infection. It also increases in circumstances where someone has reduced immunity to infection.

Hygiene measures, including laundry hygiene, are an important part of reducing spread of antibiotic resistant strains.^[25][26] In the community, otherwise healthy people can become persistent skin carriers of MRSA, or faecal carriers of enterobacteria strains which can carry multi-antibiotic resistance factors (e.g. NDM-1 or ESBL-producing strains). The risks are not apparent until, for example, they are admitted to hospital, when they can become “self infected” with their own resistant organisms following a surgical procedure. As persistent nasal, skin or bowel carriage in the healthy population spreads “silently” across the world, the risks from resistant strains in both hospitals and the community increases.^[26] In particular the data indicates that clothing and household linens are a risk factor for spread of S. aureus (including MRSA and PVL-producing MRSA strains), and that effectiveness of laundry processes may be an important factor in defining the rate of community spread of these strains.^[22][27] Experience in the USA suggests that these strains are transmissible within families, but also in community settings such as prisons, schools and sport teams. Skin-to-skin contact (including unabraded skin) and indirect contact with contaminated objects such as towels, sheets and sports equipment seem to represent the mode of transmission.^[22]

During laundering, temperature, together with the action of water and detergent work together to reduce microbial contamination levels on fabrics. During the wash cycle soil and microbes are detached from fabrics and suspended into the wash water. These are then “washed away” during the rinse and spin cycles. In addition to physical removal, micro-organisms can be killed by thermal inactivation which increases as the temperature is increased. Chemical inactivation of microbes by the surfactants and activated oxygen-based bleach used in detergents also contributes to the hygiene effectiveness of laundering. Adding hypochlorite bleach in the washing process also achieves inactivation of microbes. A number of other factors can also contribute including drying and ironing.

Laundry detergents contain a mix of ingredients including surfactants, builders, optical brighteners, etc. Cleaning action arises primarily from the action of the surfactants and other ingredients, which are designed to maximise release and suspension of dirt and microbes into the wash liquid, together with enzymes and/or an activated oxygen-based bleach which digest and remove stains. Although activated oxygen bleach is included in many powder detergents to digest and remove stains, it also produces some chemical inactivation of bacteria, fungi and viruses. As a rule of thumb, powders and tablets normally contain an activated oxygen bleach, but liquids, and all products (liquid or powder) used for “coloureds” do not. Surfactants also exert some chemical inactivation action against certain species although the extent of their action is not known.

In 2013 the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene (IFH) reviewed some 30 studies of the hygiene effectiveness of laundering at various temperatures ranging from room temperature to 70 °C, under varying conditions.^[28] A key finding was the lack of standardisation and control within studies, and the variability in test conditions between studies such as wash cycle time, number of rinses etc. The consequent variability in the data (i.e. the reduction in contamination on fabrics) obtained, in turn makes it extremely difficult to propose guidelines for laundering with any confidence, based on currently available data. As a result there is significant variability in the recommendations for hygienic laundering of clothing etc. given by different agencies

Of concern is recent data suggesting that, in reality, modern domestic washing machines do not reach the temperature specified on the machine controls.^[36][37]

Medical hygiene at home

Medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevents or minimizes disease and the spreading of disease in relation to administering medical care to those who are infected or who are more "at risk" of infection in the home. Across the world, governments are increasingly under pressure to fund the level of healthcare that people expect. Care of increasing numbers of patients in the community, including at home is one answer, but can be fatally undermined by inadequate infection control in the home. Increasingly, all of these "at-risk" groups are cared for at home by a carer who may be a household member who thus requires a good knowledge of hygiene. People with reduced immunity to infection, who are looked after at home, make up an increasing proportion of the population (currently up to 20%).^[5] The largest proportion are the elderly who have co-morbidities, which reduce their immunity to infection. It also includes the very young, patients discharged from hospital, taking immuno-suppressive drugs or using invasive systems, etc. For patients discharged from hospital, or being treated at home special "medical hygiene" (see above) procedures may need to be performed for them e.g. catheter or dressing replacement, which puts them at higher risk of infection.

Antiseptics may be applied to cuts, wounds abrasions of the skin to prevent the entry of harmful bacteria that can cause sepsis. Day-to-day hygiene practices, other than special medical hygiene procedures^[38] are no different for those at increased risk of infection than for other family members. The difference is that, if hygiene practices are not correctly carried out, the risk of infection is much greater.

Home hygiene in low-income communities

In the developing world, for decades, universal access to water and sanitation has been seen as the essential step in reducing the preventable ID burden, but it is now clear that this is best achieved by programs that integrate hygiene promotion with improvements in water quality and availability, and sanitation. About 2 million people die every year due to diarrheal diseases, most of them are children less than 5 years of age. The most affected are the populations in developing countries, living in extreme conditions of poverty, normally peri-urban dwellers or rural inhabitants. Providing access to sufficient quantities of safe water, the provision of facilities for a sanitary disposal of excreta, and introducing sound hygiene behaviors are of capital importance to reduce the burden of disease caused by these risk factors.

Research shows that, if widely practiced, hand washing with soap could reduce diarrhea by almost fifty percent^[40][41][42] and respiratory infections by nearly twenty-five percent Hand washing with soap also reduces the incidence of skin diseases, eye infections like trachoma and intestinal worms, especially ascariasis and trichuriasis.^[

Other hygiene practices, such as safe disposal of waste, surface hygiene, and care of domestic animals, are also important in low income communities to break the chain of infection transmission.^[48]

Disinfectants and antibacterial in home hygiene

Chemical disinfectants are products that kill germs (harmful bacteria, viruses and fungi). If the product is a disinfectant, the label on the product should say "disinfectant" and/or "kills" germs or bacteria etc. Some commercial products, e.g. bleaches, even though they are technically disinfectants, say that they "kill germs", but are not actually labelled as "disinfectants". Not all disinfectants kill all types of germs. All disinfectants kill bacteria (called bactericidal). Some also kill fungi (fungicidal), bacterial spores (sporicidal) and/or viruses (virucidal).

An antibacterial product is a product that acts against bacteria in some unspecified way. Some products labelled "antibacterial" kill bacteria while others may contain a concentration of active ingredient that only prevent them multiplying. It is, therefore, important to check whether the product label states that it "kills" bacteria." An antibacterial is not necessarily anti-fungal or anti-viral unless this is stated on the label.

The term sanitizer has been used to define substances that both clean and disinfect. More recently this term has been applied to alcohol-based products that disinfect the hands (alcohol hand sanitizers). Alcohol hand sanitizers however are not considered to be effective on soiled hands.

The term biocide is a broad term for a substance that kills, inactivates or otherwise controls living organisms. It includes antiseptics and disinfectants, which combat micro-organisms, and also includes pesticides.

Personal hygiene

Personal hygiene involves those practices performed by an individual to care for one's bodily health and well being, through cleanliness. Motivations for personal hygiene practice include reduction of personal illness, healing from personal illness, optimal health and sense of well being, social acceptance and prevention of spread of illness to others. What is considered proper personal hygiene can be cultural-specific and may change over time. In some cultures removal of body hair is considered proper hygiene. Other practices that are generally considered proper hygiene include bathing regularly, washing hands regularly and especially before handling food, washing scalp hair, keeping hair short or removing hair, wearing clean clothing, brushing one's teeth, cutting finger nails, besides other practices. Some practices are gender-specific, such as by a woman during her menstrual cycle. People tend to develop a routine for attending to their personal hygiene needs. Other personal hygienic practices would include covering one's mouth when coughing, disposal of soiled tissues appropriately, making sure toilets are clean, and making sure food handling areas are clean, besides other practices. Some cultures do not kiss or shake hands to reduce transmission of bacteria by contact.

Personal grooming extends personal hygiene as it pertains to the maintenance of a good personal and public appearance, which need not necessarily be hygienic. It may involve, for example, using deodorants or perfume, shaving, or combing, besides other practices.

Excessive body hygiene

Excessive body hygiene and allergies

The hygiene hypothesis was first formulated in 1989 by Strachan who observed that there was an inverse relationship between family size and development of atopic allergic disorders – the more children in a family, the less likely they were to develop these allergies.^[49] From this, he hypothesised that lack of exposure to "infections" in early childhood transmitted by contact with older siblings could be a cause of the rapid rise in atopic disorders over the last thirty to forty years. Strachan further proposed that the reason why this exposure no longer occurs is, not only because of the trend towards smaller families, but also "improved household amenities and higher standards of personal cleanliness".

Although there is substantial evidence that some microbial exposures in early childhood can in some way protect against allergies, there is no evidence that we need exposure to harmful microbes (infection) or that we need to suffer a clinical infection. Nor is there evidence that hygiene measures such as hand washing, food hygiene etc. are linked to increased susceptibility to atopic disease. If this is the case, there is no conflict between the goals of preventing infection and minimising allergies. A consensus is now developing among experts that the answer lies in more fundamental changes in lifestyle etc. that have led to decreased exposure to certain microbial or other species, such as helminths, that are important for development of immuno-regulatory mechanisms.^[54] There is still much uncertainty as to which lifestyle factors are involved.

Although media coverage of the hygiene hypothesis has declined, a strong ‘collective mindset’ has become established that dirt is ‘healthy’ and hygiene somehow ‘unnatural’. This has caused concern among health professionals that everyday life hygiene behaviours, which are the foundation of public health, are being undermined. In response to the need for effective hygiene in home and everyday life settings, the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a "risk-based" or targeted approach to home hygiene that seeks to ensure that hygiene measures are focussed on the places, and at the times most critical for infection transmission.^[6] Whilst targeted hygiene was originally developed as an effective approach to hygiene practice, it also seeks, as far as possible, to sustain "normal" levels of exposure to the microbial flora of our environment to the extent that is important to build a balanced immune system.

Excessive body hygiene of internal ear canals

Excessive body hygiene of the ear canals can result in infection or irritation. The ear canals require less body hygiene care than other parts of the body, because they are sensitive, and the body system adequately cares for these parts. Most of the time the ear canals are self-cleaning; that is, there is a slow and orderly migration of the skin lining the ear canal from the eardrum to the outer opening of the ear. Old earwax is constantly being transported from the deeper areas of the ear canal out to the opening where it usually dries, flakes, and falls out.^[55] Attempts to clean the ear canals through the removal of earwax can actually reduce ear canal cleanliness by pushing debris and foreign material into the ear that the natural movement of ear wax out of the ear would have removed.

Excessive body hygiene of skin

Excessive body hygiene of the skin can result in skin irritation. The skin has a natural layer of oil, which promotes elasticity, and protects the skin from drying. When washing, unless using aqueous creams with compensatory mechanisms, this layer is removed leaving the skin unprotected.

Excessive application of soaps, creams, and ointments can also adversely affect certain of the natural processes of the skin. For examples, soaps and ointments can deplete the skin of natural protective oils and fat-soluble content such as cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), and external substances can be absorbed, to disturb natural hormonal balances.

Culinary (food) hygiene

Culinary hygiene pertains to the practices related to food management and cooking to prevent food contamination, prevent food poisoning and minimize the transmission of disease to other foods, humans or animals. Culinary hygiene practices specify safe ways to handle, store, prepare, serve and eat food.

Culinary practices include:

·                    Cleaning and disinfection of food-preparation areas and equipment (for example using designated cutting boards for preparing raw meats and vegetables). Cleaning may involve use of chlorine bleach, ethanol, ultraviolet light, etc. for disinfection.

·                    Careful avoidance of meats contaminated by trichina worms, salmonella, and other pathogens; or thorough cooking of questionable meats.

·                    Extreme care in preparing raw foods, such as sushi and sashimi.

·                    Institutional dish sanitizing by washing with soap and clean water.

·                    Washing of hands thoroughly before touching any food.

·                    Washing of hands after touching uncooked food when preparing meals.

·                    Not using the same utensils to prepare different foods.

·                    Not sharing cutlery when eating.

·                    Not licking fingers or hands while or after eating.

·                    Not reusing serving utensils that have been licked.

·                    Proper storage of food so as to prevent contamination by vermin.

·                    Refrigeration of foods (and avoidance of specific foods in environments where refrigeration is or was not feasible).

·                    Labeling food to indicate when it was produced (or, as food manufacturers prefer, to indicate its "best before" date).

·                    Proper disposal of uneaten food and packaging.

Personal service hygiene

Personal service hygiene pertains to the practices related to the care and use of instruments used in the administration of personal care services to people:

Personal hygiene practices include:

·                    Sterilization of instruments used by service providers including hairdressers, aestheticians, and other service providers.

·                    Sterilization by autoclave of instruments used in body piercing and tattoo marking.

·                    Cleaning hands.

History of hygienic practices

The earliest written account of Elaborate codes of hygiene can be found in several Hindu texts, such as the Manusmriti and the Vishnu Purana.^[56]Bathing is one of the five Nitya karmas (daily duties) in Hinduism, and not performing it leads to sin, according to some scriptures.

Three young women bathing, 440–430 BC. Ancient Greece.

Regular bathing was a hallmark of Roman civilization.^[57] Elaborate baths were constructed in urban areas to serve the public, who typically demanded the infrastructure to maintain personal cleanliness. The complexes usually consisted of large, swimming pool-like baths, smaller cold and hot pools, saunas, and spa-like facilities where individuals could be depilated, oiled, and massaged. Water was constantly changed by an aqueduct-fed flow. Bathing outside of urban centers involved smaller, less elaborate bathing facilities, or simply the use of clean bodies of water. Roman cities also had large sewers, such as Rome's Cloaca Maxima, into which public and private latrines drained. Romans didn't have demand-flush toilets but did have some toilets with a continuous flow of water under them. (Similar toilets are seen in Acre Prison in the film Exodus.)

Until the late 19th Century, only the elite in Western cities typically possessed indoor facilities for relieving bodily functions. The poorer majority used communal facilities built above cesspools in backyards and courtyards. This changed after Dr. John Snow discovered that cholera was transmitted by the fecal contamination of water. Though it took decades for his findings to gain wide acceptance, governments and sanitary reformers were eventually convinced of the health benefits of using sewers to keep human waste from contaminating water. This encouraged the widespread adoption of both the flush toilet and the moral imperative that bathrooms should be indoors and as private as possible.^[58]

Islamic hygienical jurisprudence

Since the 7th century, Islam has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene. Other than the need to be ritually clean in time for the daily prayer (Arabic: Salat) through Wudu and Ghusl, there are a large number of other hygiene-related rules governing the lives of Muslims. Other issues include the Islamic dietary laws. In general, the Qur'an advises Muslims to uphold high standards of physical hygiene and to be ritually clean whenever possible.

Hygiene in medieval Europe

Contrary to popular belief^[59] and although the Early Christian leaders, such as Boniface I,^[60] condemned bathing as unspiritual,^[61] bathing andsanitation were not lost in Europe with the collapse of the Roman Empire.^[62][63] Soapmaking first became an established trade during the so-called "Dark Ages". The Romans used scented oils (mostly from Egypt), among other alternatives.

Northern Europeans were not in the habit of bathing: in the ninth century Notker the Stammerer, a Frankish monk of St Gall, related a disapproving anecdote that attributed ill results of personal hygiene to an Italian fashion:

There was a certain deacon who followed the habits of the Italians in that he was perpetually trying to resist nature. He used to take baths, he had his head very closely shaved, he polished his skin, he cleaned his nail, he had his hair cut as short as if it were turned on a lathe, and he wore linen underclothes and a snow-white shirt.

Woman's Bath, 1496, by Albrecht Dürer

Secular medieval texts constantly refer to the washing of hands before and after meals, but Sone de Nansay, hero of a 13th-century romance, discovers to his chagrin that the Norwegians do not wash up after eating.^[64] In the 11th and 12th centuries, bathing was essential to the Western European upper class: theCluniac monasteries to which they resorted or retired were always provided with bathhouses, and even the monks were required to take full immersion baths twice a year, at the two Christian festivals of renewal, though exhorted not to uncover themselves from under their bathing sheets.^[65] In 14th century Tuscany, the newlywed couple's bath together was such a firm convention one such couple, in a large coopered tub, is illustrated in fresco in the town hall of San Gimignano.^[66]

Bathing had fallen out of fashion in Northern Europe long before the Renaissance, when the communal public baths of German cities were in their turn a wonder to Italian visitors. Bathing was replaced by the heavy use of sweat-bathing and perfume, as it was thought in Europe that water could carry disease into the body through the skin. Bathing encouraged an erotic atmosphere that was played upon by the writers ofromances intended for the upper class;^[67] in the tale of Melusine the bath was a crucial element of the plot. "Bathing and grooming were regarded with suspicion by moralists, however, because they unveiled the attractiveness of the body. Bathing was said to be a prelude to sin, and in the penitential of Burchard of Worms we find a full catalogue of the sins that ensued when men and women bathed together."^[68] Medieval church authorities believed that public bathing created an environment open to immorality and disease; the 26 public baths of Paris in the late 13th century were strictly overseen by the civil authorities.^[68] At a later date Roman Catholic Church officials even banned public bathing in an unsuccessful effort to halt syphilis epidemics from sweeping Europe.^[69]

Modern sanitation was not widely adopted until the 19th and 20th centuries. According to medieval historian Lynn Thorndike, people in Medieval Europe probably bathed more than people did in the 19th century.^[70] Some time after Louis Pasteur's experiments proved the germ theory of disease and Joseph Lister and others put them into practice in sanitation, hygienic practices came to be regarded as synonymous with health, as they are in modern times.

Industrial society

A social hygiene movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, sometimes including mental hygiene (now mental health), sexual hygiene and racial hygiene movements, was an attempt by Progressive-era reformers to prevent and control disease by changing the public's habits through the use of scientific research methods and modern media techniques. It was also based in part on eugenics, and by the 1930s thousands of forced sterilizations of people deemed undesirable took place in America each year. After 1945 when the Nazis had taken it even further, the movement was largely discredited. The drive for cleanliness persisted, however, particularly cleanliness in children. This showed many benefits such as reduced child mortality rates. It also became increasingly commercialized, however, and may have contributed to environmental pollution, resistance to antibiotics, and even restricting the development of the immune system leading to increased incidence of diseases such as asthma or allergies.^[71]