Hygiene (which comes from the name of the Greek goddess of health, Hygieia), is a set of practices
performed for the preservation of health.
Whereas in popular culture and parlance it can often mean mere 'cleanliness',
hygiene in its fullest and original meaning goes much beyond that to include
all circumstances and practices, lifestyle issues, premises and commodities
that engender a safe and healthy environment. While in modern medical sciences there is a set of standards of hygiene
recommended for different situations, what is considered hygienic or not can
vary between different cultures, genders and etarian
groups. Some regular hygienic practices may be considered good habits by a society while the neglect of
hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful or even threatening.
Sanitation in its current US UK
Etymology
First attested in
English in 1677s, the word hygiene comes from the French hygiene, the latinisation of the Greek ὑγιεινή (τέχνη) hugieinē technē, meaning
"(art) of health", from ὑγιεινός hugieinos,
"good for the health, healthy",[1] in turn from ὑγιής (hugiēs),
"healthful, sound, salutary, wholesome".[2] In ancient Greek religion, Hygeia (Ὑγίεια) was the personification of
health.[
Concept of hygiene
Hygiene is an old concept related to medicine,
as well as to personal and professional care practices related to most aspects
of living. In medicine and in home (domestic) and everyday life settings,
hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence
and spreading of disease. In the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic
and other products, good hygiene is a key part of quality assurance i.e. ensuring that the product
complies with microbial specifications appropriate to its use. The terms cleanliness (or cleaning) and hygiene are often
used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly
means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Since
cleaning processes (e.g., hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as
dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the
term appear in phrases including: body
hygiene, personal hygiene, sleep
hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, and occupational
hygiene, used in connection with public
health. Hygiene is also the name of a branch of
science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health, also called
hygienic. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is considered acceptable in
one culture might not be acceptable in another.
Medical hygiene
Medical hygiene
pertains to the hygiene practices related to the administration of medicine,
and medical care, that prevents or minimizes disease and the spreading of
disease.
Medical hygiene
practices include:
·
Isolation or quarantine of infectious persons or materials to
prevent spread of infection.
·
Sterilization of instruments used in surgical procedures.
·
Use of protective clothing and barriers, such as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and gloves.
·
Proper bandaging and dressing of injuries.
·
Safe disposal of medical
waste.
·
Disinfection of reusables (i.e. linen, pads,
uniforms)
·
Scrubbing up, hand-washing, especially in an
operating room, but in more general health-care settings as well, where
diseases can be transmitted[4]
Most of these
practices were developed in the 19th century and were well established by the
mid-20th century. Some procedures (such as disposal of medical waste) were refined in
response to late-20th century disease outbreaks, notably AIDS and Ebola.
Home and everyday
life hygiene
Home hygiene pertains
to the hygiene practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of
disease in home (domestic) and in everyday life settings such as social
settings, public transport, the work place, public places etc.
Hygiene in home and everyday
life settings plays an important part in preventing spread of infectious
diseases.[5] It includes procedures used in a variety of domestic
situations such as hand hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene,
general home hygiene (hygiene of environmental sites and surfaces), care of
domestic animals, and home healthcare (the care of those who are at greater
risk of infection).
At present, these
components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although all are
based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread
of infectious diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. The
simple principle is that, if the chain of infection is broken, infection cannot
spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in home and
everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has
developed a risk-based approach (based on Hazard Analysis Critical
Control Point (HACCP), which has come to be known as "targeted
hygiene". Targeted hygiene is based on identifying the routes of spread of
pathogens in the home, and applying hygiene procedures at critical points at
appropriate times to break the chain of infection.
The main sources of
infection in the home are people (who are
carriers or are infected), foods (particularly raw foods) and water, and
domestic animals (in western countries more than 50% of homes have one or more
pets). Additionally, sites that accumulate stagnant water—such as sinks,
toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths—readily support microbial
growth, and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are
mostly those that threaten "at risk" groups. Germs (potentially infectious bacteria,
viruses etc.) are constantly shed from these sources via mucous membranes,
faeces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people
become exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an
infection. The main "highways" for spread of germs[6] in the home are the hands, hand and food contact surfaces,
and cleaning cloths and utensils. Germs can also spread via clothing and
household linens, such as towels. Utilities such as toilets and wash basins,
for example, were invented for dealing safely with human waste, but still have
risks associated with them, which may become critical at certain times, e.g.,
when someone has sickness or diarrhea. Safe disposal of human waste is a
fundamental need; poor sanitation is a primary cause of diarrhea disease
in low income communities. Respiratory viruses and fungal spores are also
spread via the air.
Good home hygiene
means targeting hygiene procedures at critical points, at appropriate times, to
break the chain of infection i.e. to eliminate germs before they can spread
further.[6] Because the "infectious dose" for some pathogens
can be very small (10-100 viable units, or even less for some viruses), and
infection can result from direct transfer from surfaces via hands or food to
the mouth, nasal mucosa or the eye, 'hygienic cleaning' procedures should be
sufficient to eliminate pathogens from critical surfaces. Hygienic cleaning can
be done by:
·
Mechanical removal (i.e. cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a
hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under
running water to remove germs from the surface.
·
Using a process or product that inactivates
the pathogens in situ. Germ kill is achieved using a "micro-biocidal"
product i.e. a disinfectant orantibacterial product or waterless hand sanitizer, or by
application of heat.
·
In some cases combined germ removal with kill
is used, e.g. laundering of clothing and household linens such as towels and
bedlinen.
Some hygiene
accessories.
Hand hygiene
Hand hygiene is
defined as hand washing or washing hands and nails with soap
and water or using awaterless hand sanitizer.
Hand hygiene is
central to preventing spread of infectious diseases in home and everyday life
settings.[7]
In situations where
hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g. when in a public place with no
access to wash facilities), a waterless
hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can also be used in
addition to hand washing, to minimize risks when caring for "at risk"
groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v
alcohol. Hand sanitizers are not an option in most developing countries. In
situations with limited water supply, there are water-conserving solutions,
such as tippy-taps. (A tippy-tap is a simple technology using a jug suspended
by a rope, and a foot-operated lever to pour a small amount of water over the
hands and a bar of soap.[8]) In low-income
communities, mud or ash is sometimes used as an alternative to soap.
The World Health
Organization recommends hand washing with ash if soap is not available in
emergencies,[9] schools without access to soap [10]and other difficult situations like post-emergencies where
use of (clean) sand is recommended too.[11] Use of ash is common
and has in experiments been shown at least as effective as soap for removing
bacteria.[12]
Respiratory hygiene
Correct respiratory
and hand hygiene when coughing and sneezing reduces the
spread of germs particularly during the cold and flu season.[5]
·
Carry tissues and use them to catch coughs and
sneezes
·
Dispose of tissues as soon as possible
·
Clean your hands by hand washing or using an alcohol hand sanitizer.
Food hygiene at home
Food hygiene is
concerned with the hygiene practices that prevent food poisoning. The five key
principles of food hygiene, according to WHO,
are:[13]
1.
Prevent contaminating food with mixing
chemicals spreading from people, pets, and pests.
2.
Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent
contaminating the cooked foods.
3.
Cook foods for the appropriate length of time
and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.
4.
Store food at the proper temperature.
5.
Use safe water and raw materials
Household water
treatment and safe storage
Household water
treatment and safe storage ensure drinking water is safe for consumption. Drinking water quality remains a significant problem, not
only in developing countries[14] but also in developed
countries;[15] even in the European region it is estimated that 120
million people do not have access to safe
drinking water. Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrheal
disease in communities where water quality is poor, or in emergency situations
where there is a breakdown in water supply.[14][15][16][17] Since water can become contaminated during storage at home
(e.g. by contact with contaminated hands or using dirty storage vessels), safe storage of water in the home is also important.
Methods for treatment
of drinking water,[17][18] include:
1.
Chemical disinfection using chlorine or iodine
2.
Boiling
3.
Filtration using ceramic filters
4.
Solar disinfection - Solar disinfection is an
effective method, especially when no chemical disinfectants are available.[19]
5.
UV irradiation - community or household UV
systems may be batch or flow-though. The lamps can be suspended above the water
channel or submerged in the water flow.
6.
Combined flocculation/disinfection systems –
available as sachets of powder that act by coagulating and flocculating
sediments in water followed by release of chlorine.
7.
Multibarrier methods – Some systems use two or
more of the above treatments in combination or in succession to optimize
efficacy.
Hygiene in the kitchen,
bathroom and toilet
Routine cleaning of
(hand, food and drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and
flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in
the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of germs.[18] The infection risk from the toilet itself is not high,
provided it is properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol
formation can occur during flushing, particularly where someone in the family
has diarrhea. Germs can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths and
wash basins after washing and bathing.
Water left stagnant in
the pipes of showers can be contaminated with germs that become airborne when
the shower is turned on. If a shower has not been used for some time, it should
be left to run at a hot temperature for a few minutes before use.
Thorough cleaning is
important in preventing the spread of fungal infections.[20] Molds can live on wall and floor tiles and on shower
curtains. Mold can be responsible for infections, cause allergic responses,
deteriorate/damage surfaces and cause unpleasant odors. Primary sites of fungal
growth are inanimate surfaces, including carpets and soft furnishings.[21] Air-borne fungi are usually associated with damp
conditions, poor ventilation or closed air systems.
Cleaning of toilets
and hand wash facilities is important to prevent odors and make them socially
acceptable. Social acceptance is an important part of encouraging people to use
toilets and wash their hands.
Laundry hygiene
Laundry hygiene
pertains to the practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of
disease via soiled clothing and household linens such as towels.[22] Items most likely to be contaminated with pathogens are
those that come into direct contact with the body, e.g., underwear, personal
towels, facecloths, nappies. Cloths or other fabric items used during food
preparation, or for cleaning the toilet or cleaning up material such as faeces
or vomit are a particular risk.[23]
Microbiological and
epidemiological data indicates that clothing and household linens etc. are a
risk factor for infection transmission in home and everyday life settings as
well as institutional settings, although the lack of quantitative data directly
linking contaminated clothing to infection in the domestic setting makes it
difficult to assess the extent of the risk.[22][23][24] Although microbiological data indicates that risks from
clothing and household linens are somewhat less than those associated with
hands, hand contact and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths,
nevertheless these risks needs to be appropriately managed through effective
laundering practices. In the home, this routine should be carried out as part
of a multibarrier approach to hygiene which also includes hand, food, respiratory
and other hygiene practices.[22][23][24]
Infection risks from
contaminated clothing etc. can increase significantly under certain conditions.
e.g. in healthcare situations in hospitals, care homes and the domestic setting
where someone has diarrhoea, vomiting, or a skin or wound infection. It also
increases in circumstances where someone has reduced immunity to infection.
Hygiene measures,
including laundry hygiene, are an important part of reducing spread of
antibiotic resistant strains.[25][26] In the community,
otherwise healthy people can become persistent skin carriers of MRSA, or faecal
carriers of enterobacteria strains which can carry multi-antibiotic resistance
factors (e.g. NDM-1 or ESBL-producing strains). The risks are not apparent
until, for example, they are admitted to hospital, when they can become “self
infected” with their own resistant organisms following a surgical procedure. As
persistent nasal, skin or bowel carriage in the healthy population spreads
“silently” across the world, the risks from resistant strains in both hospitals
and the community increases.[26] In particular the data
indicates that clothing and household linens are a risk factor for spread of S.
aureus (including MRSA and PVL-producing MRSA strains), and that effectiveness
of laundry processes may be an important factor in defining the rate of
community spread of these strains.[22][27] Experience in the USA
During laundering,
temperature, together with the action of water and detergent work together to
reduce microbial contamination levels on fabrics. During the wash cycle soil
and microbes are detached from fabrics and suspended into the wash water. These
are then “washed away” during the rinse and spin cycles. In addition to
physical removal, micro-organisms can be killed by thermal inactivation which
increases as the temperature is increased. Chemical inactivation of microbes by
the surfactants and activated oxygen-based bleach used in detergents also
contributes to the hygiene effectiveness of laundering. Adding hypochlorite
bleach in the washing process also achieves inactivation of microbes. A number
of other factors can also contribute including drying and ironing.
Laundry detergents
contain a mix of ingredients including surfactants, builders, optical
brighteners, etc. Cleaning action arises primarily from the action of the
surfactants and other ingredients, which are designed to maximise release and
suspension of dirt and microbes into the wash liquid, together with enzymes
and/or an activated oxygen-based bleach which digest and remove stains.
Although activated oxygen bleach is included in many powder detergents to
digest and remove stains, it also produces some chemical inactivation of
bacteria, fungi and viruses. As a rule of thumb, powders and tablets normally
contain an activated oxygen bleach, but liquids, and all products (liquid or
powder) used for “coloureds” do not. Surfactants also exert some chemical
inactivation action against certain species although the extent of their action
is not known.
In 2013 the
International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene (IFH) reviewed some 30 studies
of the hygiene effectiveness of laundering at various temperatures ranging from
room temperature to 70 °C, under varying conditions.[28] A key finding was the lack of standardisation and control
within studies, and the variability in test conditions between studies such as
wash cycle time, number of rinses etc. The consequent variability in the data
(i.e. the reduction in contamination on fabrics) obtained, in turn makes it
extremely difficult to propose guidelines for laundering with any confidence,
based on currently available data. As a result there is significant variability
in the recommendations for hygienic laundering of clothing etc. given by
different agencies
Of concern is recent data suggesting that, in
reality, modern domestic washing machines do not reach the temperature
specified on the machine controls.[36][37]
Medical hygiene at home
Medical hygiene
pertains to the hygiene practices that prevents or minimizes disease and the
spreading of disease in relation to administering medical care to those who are
infected or who are more "at risk" of infection in the home. Across
the world, governments are increasingly under pressure to fund the level of
healthcare that people expect. Care of increasing numbers of patients in the
community, including at home is one answer, but can be fatally undermined by
inadequate infection control in the home. Increasingly, all of these
"at-risk" groups are cared for at home by a carer who may be a
household member who thus requires a good knowledge of hygiene. People with
reduced immunity to infection, who are looked after at home, make up an increasing
proportion of the population (currently up to 20%).[5] The largest proportion are the elderly who have
co-morbidities, which reduce their immunity to infection. It also includes the
very young, patients discharged from hospital, taking immuno-suppressive drugs
or using invasive systems, etc. For patients discharged from hospital, or being
treated at home special "medical hygiene" (see above) procedures may
need to be performed for them e.g. catheter or dressing replacement, which puts
them at higher risk of infection.
Antiseptics may be applied to cuts, wounds
abrasions of the skin to prevent the entry of harmful bacteria that can cause
sepsis. Day-to-day hygiene practices, other than special medical hygiene
procedures[38] are no different for those at increased risk of infection
than for other family members. The difference is that, if hygiene practices are
not correctly carried out, the risk of infection is much greater.
Home hygiene in low-income
communities
In the developing
world, for decades, universal access to water and sanitation has been seen as the essential step in
reducing the preventable ID burden, but it is now clear that this is best
achieved by programs that integrate hygiene promotion with improvements in
water quality and availability, and sanitation.
About 2 million people die every year due to diarrheal diseases, most of them
are children less than 5 years of age. The
most affected are the populations in developing countries, living in extreme
conditions of poverty, normally peri-urban dwellers or rural inhabitants.
Providing access to sufficient quantities of safe water, the provision of
facilities for a sanitary disposal of excreta, and introducing sound hygiene
behaviors are of capital importance to reduce the burden of disease caused by
these risk factors.
Research shows that,
if widely practiced, hand washing
with soap could reduce diarrhea
by almost fifty percent[40][41][42] and respiratory infections by nearly twenty-five percent Hand
washing with soap also reduces the incidence of skin diseases, eye infections
like trachoma and intestinal worms, especially ascariasis and trichuriasis.[
Other hygiene
practices, such as safe disposal of waste, surface hygiene, and care of
domestic animals, are also important in low income communities to break the
chain of infection transmission.[48]
Disinfectants and antibacterial
in home hygiene
Chemical disinfectants are products that kill germs (harmful
bacteria, viruses and fungi). If the product is a disinfectant, the label on
the product should say "disinfectant" and/or "kills" germs
or bacteria etc. Some commercial products, e.g. bleaches, even though they are
technically disinfectants, say that they "kill germs", but are not
actually labelled as "disinfectants". Not all disinfectants kill all
types of germs. All disinfectants kill bacteria (called bactericidal). Some
also kill fungi (fungicidal), bacterial spores (sporicidal) and/or viruses
(virucidal).
An antibacterial product is a product that acts against
bacteria in some unspecified way. Some products labelled "antibacterial"
kill bacteria while others may contain a concentration of active ingredient
that only prevent them multiplying. It is, therefore, important to check
whether the product label states that it "kills" bacteria." An
antibacterial is not necessarily anti-fungal or anti-viral unless this is
stated on the label.
The term sanitizer has been used to define substances
that both clean and disinfect. More recently this term has been applied to
alcohol-based products that disinfect the hands (alcohol hand sanitizers).
Alcohol hand sanitizers however are not considered to be effective on soiled
hands.
The term biocide is a broad term for a substance that
kills, inactivates or otherwise controls living organisms. It includes antiseptics and disinfectants, which combat
micro-organisms, and also includes pesticides.
Personal hygiene
Personal hygiene involves those practices
performed by an individual to care for one's bodily health and well being,
through cleanliness. Motivations for personal hygiene practice include
reduction of personal illness, healing from personal illness, optimal health
and sense of well being, social acceptance and prevention of spread of illness
to others. What is considered proper personal hygiene can be cultural-specific
and may change over time. In some cultures removal
of body hair is considered proper
hygiene. Other practices that are generally considered proper hygiene include
bathing regularly, washing hands regularly and especially before handling food,
washing scalp hair, keeping hair short or removing hair, wearing clean
clothing, brushing one's teeth, cutting finger nails, besides other practices.
Some practices are gender-specific, such as by a woman during her menstrual
cycle. People tend to develop a routine for attending to their personal hygiene
needs. Other personal hygienic practices would include covering one's mouth
when coughing, disposal of soiled tissues appropriately, making sure toilets
are clean, and making sure food handling areas are clean, besides other
practices. Some cultures do not kiss or shake hands to reduce transmission of
bacteria by contact.
Personal grooming extends personal hygiene as it
pertains to the maintenance of a good personal and public appearance, which
need not necessarily be hygienic. It may involve, for example, using deodorants
or perfume, shaving, or combing, besides other practices.
Excessive body hygiene
Excessive body hygiene
and allergies
The hygiene hypothesis was first formulated in 1989 by
Strachan who observed that there was an inverse relationship between family
size and development of atopic allergic disorders – the more children in a
family, the less likely they were to develop these allergies.[49] From this, he hypothesised that lack of exposure to
"infections" in early childhood transmitted by contact with older
siblings could be a cause of the rapid rise in atopic disorders over the last
thirty to forty years. Strachan further proposed that the reason why this
exposure no longer occurs is, not only because of the trend towards smaller
families, but also "improved household amenities and higher standards of personal cleanliness".
Although there is
substantial evidence that some microbial exposures in early childhood can in
some way protect against allergies, there is no evidence that we need exposure
to harmful microbes (infection) or that we need to suffer a clinical infection.
Nor is there evidence that hygiene measures such as hand washing, food hygiene
etc. are linked to increased susceptibility to atopic disease. If this is the case,
there is no conflict between the goals of preventing infection and minimising
allergies. A consensus is now developing among experts that the answer lies in
more fundamental changes in lifestyle etc. that have led to decreased exposure
to certain microbial or other species, such as helminths, that are important
for development of immuno-regulatory mechanisms.[54] There is still much uncertainty as to which lifestyle
factors are involved.
Although media
coverage of the hygiene hypothesis has declined, a strong ‘collective mindset’
has become established that dirt is ‘healthy’ and hygiene somehow ‘unnatural’.
This has caused concern among health professionals that everyday life hygiene
behaviours, which are the foundation of public health, are being undermined. In
response to the need for effective hygiene in home and everyday life settings,
the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a "risk-based"
or targeted approach to home hygiene that seeks to ensure that hygiene measures
are focussed on the places, and at the times most critical for infection
transmission.[6] Whilst targeted hygiene was originally developed as an
effective approach to hygiene practice, it also seeks, as far as possible, to
sustain "normal" levels of exposure to the microbial flora of our
environment to the extent that is important to build a balanced immune system.
Excessive body hygiene
of internal ear canals
Excessive body hygiene of the ear canals can result in infection or irritation.
The ear canals require less body hygiene care than other parts of the body,
because they are sensitive, and the body system adequately cares for these
parts. Most of the time the ear canals are self-cleaning; that is, there is a
slow and orderly migration of the skin lining the ear canal from the eardrum to
the outer opening of the ear. Old earwax is constantly being transported from
the deeper areas of the ear canal out to the opening where it usually dries,
flakes, and falls out.[55] Attempts to clean the ear canals through the removal of earwax can actually reduce ear canal
cleanliness by pushing debris and foreign material into the ear that the
natural movement of ear wax out of the ear would have removed.
Excessive body hygiene
of skin
Excessive body hygiene
of the skin can result in skin irritation. The skin has a natural layer of oil,
which promotes elasticity, and protects the skin from drying. When washing,
unless using aqueous creams with compensatory mechanisms, this
layer is removed leaving the skin unprotected.
Excessive application
of soaps, creams, and ointments can also adversely affect certain of the
natural processes of the skin. For examples, soaps and ointments can deplete
the skin of natural protective oils and fat-soluble content such as
cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), and external substances can be absorbed, to
disturb natural hormonal balances.
Culinary (food) hygiene
Culinary hygiene
pertains to the practices related to food management and cooking to prevent food contamination, prevent food poisoning and minimize the transmission of disease to other foods, humans or animals.
Culinary hygiene practices specify safe ways to handle, store, prepare, serve
and eat food.
Culinary practices
include:
·
Cleaning and disinfection of food-preparation areas and
equipment (for example using designated cutting boards for preparing raw meats
and vegetables). Cleaning may involve use of chlorine
bleach, ethanol, ultraviolet light, etc. for
disinfection.
·
Careful avoidance of meats contaminated by trichina worms, salmonella, and other pathogens; or
thorough cooking of questionable meats.
·
Extreme care in preparing raw foods, such as sushi and sashimi.
·
Institutional dish sanitizing by washing with soap and clean water.
·
Washing of hands thoroughly before touching any food.
·
Washing of hands after touching uncooked food
when preparing meals.
·
Not using the same utensils to prepare different foods.
·
Not sharing cutlery when eating.
·
Not licking fingers or hands while or after
eating.
·
Not reusing serving utensils that have been
licked.
·
Proper storage
of food so as to prevent contamination by vermin.
·
Refrigeration of foods (and avoidance of specific
foods in environments where refrigeration is or was not feasible).
·
Labeling food to indicate when it was produced
(or, as food manufacturers prefer, to indicate its "best before" date).
·
Proper disposal of uneaten food and packaging.
Personal service hygiene
Personal service
hygiene pertains to the practices related to the care and use of instruments
used in the administration of personal care services to people:
Personal hygiene
practices include:
·
Sterilization of instruments used by service
providers including hairdressers, aestheticians, and other service
providers.
·
Sterilization by autoclave of instruments used in body piercing and tattoo
marking.
·
Cleaning hands.
History of hygienic
practices
The earliest written
account of Elaborate codes of hygiene can be found in several Hindu texts, such
as the Manusmriti and the Vishnu Purana.[56]Bathing is one of the five Nitya karmas (daily duties) in Hinduism, and not
performing it leads to sin, according to some scriptures.
Three young women
bathing, 440–430 BC. Ancient Greece
Regular bathing was a
hallmark of Roman civilization.[57] Elaborate baths were constructed in urban areas to
serve the public, who typically demanded the infrastructure to maintain
personal cleanliness. The complexes usually consisted of large, swimming
pool-like baths, smaller cold and hot pools, saunas, and spa-like facilities
where individuals could be depilated, oiled, and massaged. Water was constantly
changed by an aqueduct-fed flow.
Bathing outside of urban centers involved smaller, less elaborate bathing
facilities, or simply the use of clean bodies of water. Roman cities also had
large sewers, such as Rome
Until the late 19th
Century, only the elite in Western cities typically possessed indoor facilities
for relieving bodily functions. The poorer majority used communal facilities
built above cesspools in backyards and courtyards. This
changed after Dr. John Snow discovered that cholera was transmitted by the fecal
contamination of water. Though it took decades for his findings to gain wide
acceptance, governments and sanitary reformers were eventually convinced of the
health benefits of using sewers to keep human waste from contaminating water.
This encouraged the widespread adoption of both the flush toilet and the moral imperative that
bathrooms should be indoors and as private as possible.[58]
Islamic hygienical jurisprudence
Since the 7th century, Islam has always placed a strong emphasis on
hygiene. Other than the need to be ritually clean in time for the daily prayer
(Arabic: Salat) through Wudu and Ghusl, there are a large number of
other hygiene-related rules governing the lives of Muslims. Other issues
include the Islamic dietary laws.
In general, the Qur'an advises Muslims to uphold high
standards of physical hygiene and to be ritually clean whenever possible.
Hygiene in medieval Europe
Contrary to popular
belief[59] and although the Early Christian leaders, such as Boniface
I,[60] condemned bathing as unspiritual,[61] bathing andsanitation were not lost in Europe with the collapse of
the Roman Empire.[62][63] Soapmaking first
became an established trade during the so-called "Dark Ages". The Romans used scented oils (mostly
from Egypt
Northern Europeans
were not in the habit of bathing: in the ninth century Notker the Stammerer, a Frankish monk
of St Gall , related a disapproving anecdote that
attributed ill results of personal hygiene to an Italian fashion:
There was a certain
deacon who followed the habits of the Italians in that he was perpetually
trying to resist nature. He used to take baths, he had his head very closely
shaved, he polished his skin, he cleaned his nail, he had his hair cut as short
as if it were turned on a lathe, and he wore linen underclothes and a
snow-white shirt.
Woman's Bath
Secular medieval texts
constantly refer to the washing of hands before and after meals, but Sone de
Nansay, hero of a 13th-century romance, discovers to his chagrin that the
Norwegians do not wash up after eating.[64] In the 11th and 12th
centuries, bathing was essential to the Western European upper class: theCluniac monasteries to which they resorted or
retired were always provided with bathhouses, and even the monks were required
to take full immersion baths twice a year, at the two Christian festivals of
renewal, though exhorted not to uncover themselves from under their bathing
sheets.[65] In 14th century Tuscany town hall of San Gimignano
Bathing had fallen out
of fashion in Northern Europe long before the Renaissance, when the communal public
baths of German cities were in their turn a wonder to Italian visitors. Bathing
was replaced by the heavy use of sweat-bathing and perfume, as it was thought in Europe that water could
carry disease into the body through the skin. Bathing encouraged an erotic
atmosphere that was played upon by the writers ofromances intended for the upper class;[67] in the tale of Melusine the bath was a crucial element of the
plot. "Bathing and grooming were regarded with suspicion by moralists,
however, because they unveiled the attractiveness of the body. Bathing was said
to be a prelude to sin, and in the penitential of Burchard of Worms we find a full catalogue of the sins
that ensued when men and women bathed together."[68] Medieval church authorities believed that public bathing created an environment open to
immorality and disease; the 26 public baths of Paris
Modern sanitation was
not widely adopted until the 19th and 20th centuries. According to medieval
historian Lynn Thorndike, people in Medieval
Europe probably bathed more than
people did in the 19th century.[70] Some time after Louis
Pasteur's experiments proved the germ
theory of disease and Joseph Lister and others put them into practice in sanitation, hygienic practices came to
be regarded as synonymous with health,
as they are in modern times.
Industrial society
A social hygiene movement in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, sometimes including mental hygiene (now mental health), sexual hygiene and
racial hygiene movements, was an attempt by Progressive-era reformers to prevent and control
disease by changing the public's habits through the use of scientific research methods and modern media
techniques. It was also based in part on eugenics,
and by the 1930s thousands of forced sterilizations of people deemed
undesirable took place in America
No comments:
Post a Comment